April 2009

Overview

Today, about 560 million poor people live in rural areas in the semi-arid tropics (SAT) worldwide. The semi-arid tropics are characterized by highly variable and low rainfall, poorly developed infrastructure and degraded soils. Floods and droughts afflict these fragile eco-regions, and with it agriculture and livestock of the rural population.

Runoff water culled from the surrounding watershed drains into a well.

The anticipated effects of climate change pose an increased threat to the ecosystems of the SAT and are likely to worsen the living conditions of its inhabitants. Poverty, malnutrition and hunger with complex socioeconomic characteristics are already widespread and constitute a major challenge for the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and all other players working on sustainable resource management and poverty alleviation in these regions.

In the past decades, the increasing land degradation and water scarcity have led to considerable productivity losses and are thus challenging efforts to overcome poverty in the SAT where a strong nexus between poverty and environmental degradation exists. (Pathak et al. 2007) Additionally, the application of high science tools in the Dryland areas is still minimal compared to well endowed areas where the returns of investment and the adoption of new technologies are relatively quick. The global food crisis in 2008 further underlined the urgency for applied research and development in agriculture and the need to overcome the widespread neglect of dryland areas.

It is in these regions that the community watershed projects of ICRISAT come in. These interventions have the potential to combine state-of-the-art technologies with people-centered activities to change the lives of the rural poor. Recent studies by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) have shown that not only are investments in rainfed areas as productive as in the well endowed regions, but that such investments have greater impacts in these hotspots of poverty (Sreedevi et al. 2008).

Thus, in order to further enhance the effectiveness of watersheds the application of up-to-date science tools for planning, execution, monitoring and evaluation should become a regular component of watershed development projects. Tools such as Geographical Information System (GIS), remote sensing along with modeling and satellite imageries can add substantially to research and development initiatives.

Watershed projects aim at increasing water for enhancing agricultural productivity, water for people and their livestock as well as water for the environment. The growing water scarcity is one of the most significant factors that challenge the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as also the reduction of poverty worldwide. In order to achieve the MDGs in the dryland areas in Africa and Asia, increased efforts to enhance rainfed agriculture are urgently necessary.

Currently, rainfed agriculture produces about 58 per cent of the world’s food basket, whereas over 40 per cent of the earth’s total land surface consists of dryland ecosystems (Rockstörm et al. 2007). Dryland regions exist in all continents, but these fragile eco-regions are most extensive in Africa (nearly 13 million km²) and Asia (11 million km²) (White et al. 2002).

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Watershed development - A constantly evolving approach

A watershed can be described as the "entire region drained by a waterway that drains into a lake or a reservoir; the total area above a given point on a stream that contributes water to the flow at that point and as the topographic dividing line from which surface streams flow in two different directions" (Smith 1992). The area covering a single watershed may include combinations of forests, grasslands, cultivated areas, inhabited land and of course water streams.

Watershed development projects started out in most countries primarily as water conservation measures. In the last decades, however, a significant paradigm-shift changed the scope of the majority of watershed projects. Today, these interventions address a wide range of relevant issues concerning the livelihoods of the rural people and the conservation of natural resources.

In India, watershed projects evolved over the last few decades. Significant investments from the Government of India in watershed programs as well as from international donor agencies and potent non-governmental organizations (NGOs) paved the way for significant improvements and thus extensive learning experiences.

Watershed programs started out as top-down interventions that focused on soil conservation and rainwater harvesting. Inadequate transparency, lack of participation from the community and inequitable sharing of benefits were the common features of early watershed programs (Wani et al. 2001).

Scientific and technological progress contributed to an enhancement of watershed interventions, but the most significant change was the active involvement of the primary stakeholders – the rural population. Today, the community members are included in the projects right from the inception and planning phase. Watersheds function on a demand basis rather than being supply driven. Top-down approaches have been replaced by participatory methods with a strong focus on equity and empowerment of the marginalized groups and people.

ICRISAT embraced a holistic approach towards watershed development using the Integrated Genetic and Natural Resource Management (IGNRM) approach. Traditionally, crop improvement and natural resource management (NRM) were seen as distinct but complementary disciplines. Through IGNRM, ICRISAT is deliberately blurring these boundaries.

Improved varieties and improved resource management are two sides of the same coin. Most farming problems require integrated solutions, with genetic, management-related, and socio-economic components as well as the active participation of the concerned stakeholders – the farmers. In essence, plant breeders and NRM scientists must integrate their work with that of private and public sector change agents, to develop flexible cropping systems that can respond to rapid changes in market opportunities and climatic conditions, always following the advice and feedbacks from the farmers.

IGNRM tackles the issue of water scarcity on two fronts. The first utilizes natural resource management research to improve rainwater utilization through watersheds and water conservation techniques. The second employs plant breeding and biotechnology research to improve water-use efficiency and drought tolerance in crop genotypes (Bantilan et al. 2006).

The holistic approach to watershed development looks at various components of the rural economy - traditional food grains, new potential cash crops and value chains, livestock and fodder production, as well as socio-economic factors such as alternative sources of employment and income.

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Scientific knowledge to meet complex problems

The multifaceted challenges of the semi-arid tropics demand multi-disciplinary responses. Staff members of ICRISAT’s Global Theme on Agroecosystems comprise agronomists, soil scientists, climatologists, social scientists, plant breeders and environmental impact experts, who commit their work to the continuous improvement of watershed interventions in close collaboration with ICRISAT’s other global themes and partner institutions throughout the world. ICRISAT is using the latest natural science tools as well as thoroughly conducted social science research to test agricultural innovations, management styles and institutional arrangements.

Due to the complex environmental and social variables that influence the living conditions of the rural population in the SAT, the one-size-fits-all concepts do not work. Therefore, research results and recommendations have to meet the local demand.

In order to reach the ultimate goal – improve the living conditions of the rural poor and establish sustainable management styles to protect the natural resources – ICRISAT established several model-watersheds in India, Thailand, Vietnam and China. These nucleus watersheds constitute proof-of-concept sites and provide the experiences and data needed to share successful approaches as well as failures with relevant policy-makers and institutions. Ultimately, ICRISAT aims at scaling-up the lessons learned by feeding its experiences and recommendations into the existing policy frameworks in the respective countries and by sharing its experiences with donor agencies, NGOs and research institutes.

ICRISAT’s work in holistic community watershed projects has contributed to the continuous improvement of rainfed agriculture in India. In the last three years, ICRISAT together with partner institutions from the Indian Government, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and other institutions undertook a meta-analysis of almost 600 watershed programs in India. This Comprehensive Assessment was sponsored by the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation and the Ministry of Rural Development and its main findings and recommendations were integrated in the new Common Guidelines for Watershed Projects in India thus up-scaling ICRISAT’s approach to the national and state level. Today, the watershed programs in India are silently revolutionizing and improving the productivity of the rainfed agriculture (Joshi et al. 2005 & 2008).

Valuable lessons have been learned and up-scaled, especially in India. These experiences can help other countries, most notably in sub-Saharan-Africa, to effectively combine poverty-reduction measures in the SAT with natural resource management and water conservation.

ICRISAT addresses people, the environment, policies as well as innovative partnerships. It achieves progress by constantly evolving and asking the right questions at the right time.

1. People: How can the population, especially the marginalized groups, benefit from watersheds? Do the stakeholders have a sense of ownership of the project? Are gender and equity issues addressed? and How can the people be best empowered to manage the project themselves?

ICRISAT’s watershed approach is people-centric, yet state-of-the art technologies are systematically applied. Regarding the rural population as partners and the integration of indigenous knowledge of the local people has proven to be the most promising approach. Such a combination starts in the planning and site selection phase. A crucial feature for a successful and sustainable watershed is the ownership of the beneficiaries. Thus, watershed site selection follows a demand-driven approach and not top-down logic. Additionally, up-to-date science tools are used for site selection and the mapping of the natural resources of the watershed.

ICRISAT has conducted topographic surveys in several model watersheds and generated contour maps by interpolating the spot heights using GIS.

The GIS maps developed for the model watersheds were used to identify the best location for soil and water conservation structures. Capacity contours were generated for quantifying the storage capacity of the water conservation structures in watersheds. Land use maps for the watersheds were prepared based on the crop status surveys from individual farmers. Soil samples were collected from the farmers’ fields following statistically valid stratified sampling methods (Sahrawat et al. 2008) and the locations were mapped using a geographic positioning system (GPS). The spatial variability of soil nutrient status was studied to develop advisories to farmers on integrated nutrient management (INM) and further used to prepare simple color coded soil maps for the district level using GIS interpolation techniques.

The soil sampling and micro-nutrient application procedure that was supported by modern science tools resulted in considerable yield gains in all project sites. On-farm trials throughout the Indian drylands showed that farmers who apply micronutrients according to recommendations that are based on soil testing receive a comparatively higher net return of their investments, thus increasing the benefit-cost ratio.

Residual effect of boron (B), sulfur (S), and B+S applied to soybean on grain and haulm yield of wheat and economic benefits in Guna district, Madhya Pradesh, India during postrainy season 2002.

ICRISAT also used GIS for preparing charts showing the beginning and end of the rainfed crop growing period at each watershed location. Dry and wet spells of varying intensities occurring during the growing season were color-coded. These GIS outputs helped the farmers to understand the agro-climate of their region and the variability associated in the moisture status.

The selection of watershed project sites, especially locations for model watersheds was enriched with another GIS-based application: regional scale water budgeting. For the prioritization and the selection of target regions for watershed development, first-order water budgeting using GIS-linked water balance models were applied for the intervention areas. Such simulation models were fed with monthly rainfall data and information on soils to prioritize the regions and strategies for improved management of rainwater (Figure 1). Once the target region was selected, the selections of appropriate benchmark sites with the help of second-order water budgeting and more detailed simulation models were applied. The GIS map produced with this methodology showed the potential of various regions in central and peninsular India that had water surplus available for water harvesting and groundwater recharges (Wani et al. 2008).

Figure 1: Excess water available for harvesting as runoff in the states of SAT India.

In addition to the application of up-to-date science tools, a major component of IGNRM is the mode in which communities are approached. Introducing watershed development programs to the community has always been an important activity and often constitutes a crucial phase that can determine the scale of acceptance and thus the success and sustainability of the whole project.

These initial steps are called ‘entry point activities’. In contrast to the subsidy-driven approach of most governmental actors, ICRISAT builds a rapport with the rural population that is based on knowledge rather than money. Knowledge-based and people-centric entry-point activities create a sense of ownership among the community and therefore promote long-lasting responsibility for the watershed project. This is especially true when the initial measures are simple and enable participatory evaluation, when they show tangible results, and most importantly, when they are applicable for the majority of farmers. (Dixit et al. 2007)

Working with farmer organizations is another key element of ICRISAT’s approach. A meta-analysis that assessed the effectiveness of watershed projects in India identified capacity building as one of the weakest features (Wani et al. 2008). The empowerment of all stakeholders involved is a crucial component to ensure not only ownership among the community members but also interventions that address the needs of the most vulnerable groups. Institutions at all levels need to further strengthen their capacities in order to successfully cope with contemporary challenges and to adopt innovative management styles.

Capacity building is a multidimensional concept: it requires scientific as well as non-scientific competencies and it requires types of cooperation that enable knowledge sharing and mutual learning. (Wani et al. 2009)

Vulnerable groups who often lack access to information and resources have especially benefited from enhanced participation, empowerment, training and networking. ICRISAT conducts social analysis studies of gender aspects and equity issues in addition to its natural science research and advisory work. The effects of new technologies and management styles on communities need to be constantly monitored and assessed to ensure equitable benefits and effective poverty alleviation.

2. Planet Earth: How can precious natural resources be managed in a sustainable manner? Are there possibilities to reduce soil runoff and further land degradation and to enhance yields at the same time? What are the exact environmental conditions that influence the livelihoods of the people and thus the interventions? What are the scopes for agricultural improvements?

Poverty and the degradation of the natural resources in the semi-arid tropics constitute a vicious cycle. Sustainable food security and poverty alleviation can only be achieved when precious resources, foremost water, are managed reasonably. A combination of planting improved crop varieties and improving the crop growing patterns, the application of micro-nutrients and integrated pest management are some of the features that can contribute to both objectives.

ICRISAT promotes these technologies and conducts participatory research together with the farmers, adjusting the technologies according to the local demand. The continuous involvement of the farmers and participatory mid-term evaluations help to find out what works and what doesn’t.

The use of GIS to characterize the agro-ecosystems of watershed sites along with information on soils, crops, length of the growing period (LGP), biotic and abiotic constraints enabled the researchers to effectively identify adequate technology application domains with comparatively low costs. GIS, along with simulation modeling, especially the use of the water balance model, enabled ICRISAT to identify the quantities of excess water available during the season as well as plan the watershed management activities.

Further, GIS and satellite imageries used simultaneously at different times during the seasons made it possible to identify about 2 million ha of rainy season fallow lands in several states in India. This not only enabled the scientists to develop suitable crops and management options for crop intensification but also enhanced the sustainability of the systems and the economic gains for the poor farmers. Several million of fallow lands were rehabilitated and cultivated with crops that added to the income of the farmers and to the food security of the communities. (Sreedevi et al. 2008).

The identification of fallow lands through satellite images resulted mainly in recommendations for crops with a comparatively high water-use efficiency. In many regions of India, however, farmers insist on growing paddy. Therefore, ICRISAT extended its work and looked beyond watersheds in dryland regions in order to enhance the food production on fallow lands.

Rice, the most extensively grown crop in South Asia, is cultivated on approximately 50 million ha throughout the continent. Despite growing demands for food production because of an increasing population in South Asia, there is little scope for expansion of cropping into new areas and therefore an increase in cropping intensity, along with improvement of yields, needs to take place on existing agricultural lands. Rice-fallows present considerable scope for crop intensification and diversification if the appropriate technology is applied. But there has been limited information on the area of rice-fallows available and on the potential technologies that could be implemented.

This information gap can be bridged with the use of satellite remote sensing and GIS technology to develop an accurate and updated quantification and spatial distribution of rice-fallow lands and a corresponding classification of their potential and constraints for cultivation of post-rice legumes in South Asia. These rice-fallows represent diverse soil types and climatic conditions and most of these areas appear suitable for growing either cool-season or warm-season legumes.

Introducing appropriate legumes into rice-fallows is likely to have significant impact on the national economies through improved quality of nutrition for humans and animals, poverty alleviation, employment generation, and contribution to the sustainability of these cereal-based production systems in South Asia. ICRISAT’s analysis of fallow-land provided guidance to policy makers and funding agencies in identifying further research areas and to remove various bottlenecks associated with effective and sustainable utilization of rice-fallows in South Asia (Subba Rao et al. 2001).

Figure 2: Spatial distribution of rice-fallows in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia.

In order to develop a suitable strategy to improve the productivity levels of crops, it is imperative to assess the potential yield and yield gaps between potential and actual yields. Throughout the Asian SAT, many field trials are conducted every year at research stations and on farms. The yields reported in these trials can be used for determining production potential at various management levels. However, there are hiccups as the yields reported in these trials conducted over locations and seasons are sometimes confounded because of inadequate considerations regarding their genotype, climatic factors and their variability and agronomic management. Alternatively, crop growth models, which integrate the effect of different factors on yield, can be used to estimate the potential productivity for a large number of diverse locations. (Murty et al. 2007)

ICRISAT uses simulation modeling to analyze yield gaps and identify the need for technology and policy improvements. Furthermore, ICRISAT integrates anticipated effects of the climate change in its modeling system and formulates distinct recommendations for adequate adaptation strategies. An example of the practical application of this instrument is the comprehensive yield gap analysis of soybean, chickpea, pearl millet, maize sorghum and groundnut as well as rainfed rice and wheat which was undertaken in India. This yield gap analysis was carried out to assess the potential for improving productivity in various agro-ecological regions of India. In certain targeted studies, ICRISAT has also evaluated the agronomic management and climatic risks to the production of these crops.

Using the sorghum model, specific nitrogen management strategies for the rainy season as well as the post-rainy season were also evaluated for the major sorghum growing regions of India, where climatic variability has a major influence on the responses to nutrient inputs. Long-term effects of improved management of a vertic inceptisol on potential productivity and water balance of soybean-chickpea and soybean/pigeon pea systems complemented the project to assess the sustainability of the production system and the potential of supplemental irrigation through water harvesting structures and groundwater recharging (Singh et al. 2001).

Besides up-to-date science tools, relatively simple measures like micronutrient application, integrated pest management (IPM) and crop diversification made a huge difference. Even with regard to the low productivity of fields in the SAT, the deficiency of the soil in micronutrients that was found in the majority of the watershed project sites in recent years was surprising for the ICRISAT scientists. ICRISAT provides farmers with the opportunity for soil testing as a regular feature of its watershed program. After the amendment of micronutrients such as zinc, sulfur and boron, crop yields increased up to 63% for pigeonpea, 65% for maize and 50% for castor. Mirconutrients are comparatively low-priced and their application, based on soil sampling and scientific advice, resulted in significantly higher net returns for the farmers in all trials throughout India. Several on farm-trials have proven that also the rainwater use efficiency in terms of net economic returns for the rainfed crops was substantially higher by 1.5 to 1.75 times when zinc, boron and sulphur were applied compared to farmer nutrient input plots. Trials in Madhya Pradesh resulted in increased yields of 25% for soybeans after micronutrients were applied, thus boosting the rainwater use efficiency of the crop compared to the same crop in neighboring fields that were not treated.

Similarly, the introduction of IPM decreased the cultivation costs through the use of pesticides by up to US$ 66 ha-1. In northeastern Thailand, IPM techniques boosted the farmers’ net profit by 51% in cabbage compared to conventional chemical-based insect management.

Other land, soil and water management practices such as the improved use of crop residues, vermicomposting and crop diversification with legumes not only enhanced productivity but also improved the quality of soils.

In its various nucleus watershed sites, ICRISAT and partners have proven, together with the local communities, that substantial improvements are possible: the living conditions of the rural poor can be raised and these interventions are not necessarily cost-intensive. All proof-of-concept watershed sites resulted in impacts that are sustainable and that benefit the whole community. The scope of change is evidently different among the communities, these impacts are, however, characteristic of all sites:

• Community-based organizations were strengthened and led to greater social capital for the rural population

• Incomes were increased as well as employment opportunities. Outbound labor migration decreased subsequently

• Water availability was significantly increased (2-4m);

• Soil runoff was decreased as well as the use of pesticides;

• Increased greenery and C-sequestration.

• Crop yields increased substantially

• Due to mixed cropping systems, the biodiversity of the agroecosystem was sustained.

3. Partnerships: Who has valuable experiences and knowledge? And how can different actors combine their expertise to really make a difference? Is the involvement of the private sector a promising approach?

Strategic alliances, the exchange of valuable experiences and the right mix of expertise are a key features of successful watershed projects. ICRISAT has initiated several consortia for watershed projects in countries such as India, China, Thailand, Vietnam and Rwanda. These consortia bring together different institutions -- governmental agencies, research institutes, community-based organizations, agricultural universities, NGOs and other private interest groups yet retaining farm households as the key decision-makers of substantive changes.

The various consortia serve as a platform for effective planning, the exchange of knowledge and experiences, and mutual learning. The success of watershed management largely depends on the participation of the community. The consortium approach ensures the active participation of the community in planning, implementation and evaluation and brings together local, regional, national and international research and development institutions to provide technical support to the farmers. The farmers refine the technologies and undertake on-farm strategic research together with the consortium partners. This approach facilitates a two-way communication flow: feedback from the field level can be directly addressed to the consortium partners and both sides benefit from the exchange of knowledge and experiences.

Partnerships with the private sector also bear huge potentials that are currently untapped in the dryland areas of most countries. Public-private partnerships (PPP) have proved their productivity in several watersheds sites and created win-win situations for all stakeholders involved. In fact, experiences of ICRISAT and partners suggest a substantially new perspective on watershed development programs: watersheds should be regarded as business models.

4. Policies: Where are scopes for improvement in the existing frameworks and implementation practices? How can key-decision makers be influenced to further ameliorate the situation of the rural poor and at the same time ensure a sustainable management of the natural resources?

In watershed development, it is imperative to quantify the impacts and benefits of the projects. Systematically collected data is still missing in many watershed projects in various countries. Such information is needed, however, to effectively identify the drivers of success. Ultimately, these factors have the potential to serve as eye-openers for policy-makers and investors alike.

ICRISAT’s consortia experience has positively influenced recent policy reforms on watershed management in various Asian countries. In India, a 2006 report by the Ministry of Rural Development’s Technical Committee on Watersheds strongly recommended prioritizing community capacity building especially for vulnerable groups. It has recommended the tripling of national watershed development spending.

The Indian Federal National Farmers Commission has made several recommendations to the Government based on ICRISAT’s consortium watershed model. The model has also led to greater convergence of related government agricultural programs around watersheds, the promotion of rainwater harvesting, the restoration of artificial water bodies and the recent widespread soil testing for micronutrients.

The consortium’s success in Kothapally, Andhra Pradesh led to its replication in other Indian states. The state government took the lead in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, while in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Jharkhand, the Sir Dorabjee Tata Trust and the Sir Ratan Tata Trust funded the spread of the program. In selected watersheds in Tamil Nadu TVS Agri Sciences Research Institute (TVSASRI) and in Rajasthan the Confederation of Indian Industry, supported the projects.

In the last two years, ICRISAT together with partner institutions from the Indian Government, ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) and other institutions undertook a meta-analysis of almost 636 watershed programs in India. This Comprehensive Assessment was sponsored by the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation and the Ministry of Rural Development. ICRISAT and partners concluded that issues of production, environment, poverty, social exclusion and resilience need to be addressed in a harmonized framework in order to overcome the shortcomings that were found in almost two-thirds of the watershed programs.

5. Project monitoring and evaluation: What are the drivers of success - and what are those of failures? Are the relevant stakeholders benefiting from the project? and Can the Asian experiences make a difference in Africa?

In order to monitor and assess the impacts of watershed projects and document the lessons learned, ICRISAT again combines up-to-date technologies with participatory methods. Case studies of watersheds provide valuable information, given that relevant data is collected systematically and the stakeholders have the opportunity to express their views on the intervention.

Additionally, up-to-date science tools enable them to collect the relevant data at relatively low costs and to provide reliable information on crucial environmental factors.

GIS, satellite data and remote sensing can be applied to monitor, but these tools also enable to mid-course corrections if required. Parameters included under monitoring activities with these tools are land use/land cover, extent of irrigated area, vegetation density and condition, fluctuation of groundwater levels, well density and yield, cropping pattern and crop yield, occurrence of hazards, and socioeconomic conditions. Land use/land cover parameters include changes in the number and aerial extent of surface water bodies, spatial extent of forest and other plantations, wastelands, and cropped area. (Dwivedi et al. 2003)

Using GIS and survey data, the watersheds in India, Thailand and Vietnam were characterized for the distribution of natural resources like soils, climate, water resources and land use systems at the initiation of the watershed projects. These up-to-date science tools enabled a scientific observation of the changes including significant improvements in the vegetation cover in the Kothapally watershed in Andhra Pradesh and the Lateri watershed in Madhya Pradesh with the introduction and adoption of improved resource management and crop production technologies over a period of five years (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Satellite and NDVI image of Adarsha Watershed, Kothapally, Andhra Pradesh, India.

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Outlook

Over-exploitation of natural resources to meet the increasing demand for food and fuel of the rapidly growing population in Asia and Africa has led to environmental degradation and calls for initiation of immediate steps for optimal utilization based on the potential and limitations of the specific agro-ecoregion. Reliable information on the nature, extent and spatial distribution of natural resources are prerequisites for achieving this goal. Multispectral measurements made at regular intervals using satellite imagery hold immense potential for providing such information in a timely and cost-effective manner. Furthermore, the up-to-date science tools facilitate the assessment of the interventions made in the benchmark watersheds. (Sreedevi et al. 2008)

The anticipated effects of climate change pose fundamental threats to the rural population of the semi-arid tropics in Asia and Africa. Again, the poorest of the poor will be affected most severely by a further degradation of the soils and depleting water sources. A combination of people-centered interventions and up-to-date science tools that enrich watershed programs is needed to tackle the challenges ahead. Creating resilience among the rural poor through capacity building and enabling them to develop adequate adaptation strategies with a combination of local knowledge and the latest scientific technologies and tools is one of the key-features of ICRISAT’s involvement in watershed development. Tools such as remote sensing, GIS and the scope of improvement calculated with the help of simulation modeling can add significantly to raise awareness of the climate change and its threats among the rural population in the SAT.

Recently, ICRISAT has enriched watershed programs with yet another component: biofuel production. Degraded and marginal lands that are unsuitable for food production may be used to grow biofuel crops without disturbing the global food web. Potential sources of biodiesel like pongamia and jatropha trees, could be suitable candidates for growth in such marginal lands because of their proven adaptability to harsh environments. The Indian government promotes public private partnerships (PPP) as part of its policy framework to attract private corporations to invest in biofuel production.

ICRISAT is currently exploring mechanisms to enhance additional income sources for the rural poor without endangering food production. One example is the collaboration with the German Technical Cooperation (GTZ). GTZ funded a PPP initiative between ICRISAT and Southern Online Bio Technologies Ltd. (SBT) for supporting farmer activities in the value-chains of biofuels with the objective of assisting smallholder farmers and the rural poor within 50-100 km of the bio-diesel plant site in the planting of oil-bearing trees, oil extraction, and marketing through training, technology support, and field demonstrations.

ICRISAT will continue its high-quality research on the different components of IGNRM. The Center will continue its project implementation in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa to support the rural poor in improving their living conditions and managing the natural resources in a sustainable manner. Together with the partner institutes from the CGIAR network, governments of the partner countries, agricultural universities, the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA), ICAR and various other institutions, ICRISAT will further strengthen the Asian-African collaborations and thus enhance South-South networks.

Impacts:

The impacts of ICRISAT’s watershed programs can be summed up as follows:

1. Findings and recommendations from the Comprehensive Assessment were integrated in the new Common Guidelines for Watershed Projects in India thus up-scaling ICRISAT’s approach to the national and state level

2. The soil sampling and micro-nutrient application procedure resulted in considerable yield gains in all project sites, thus increasing the benefit-cost ratio.

3. Rainwater use efficiency in terms of net economic returns were substantially higher by 1.5 to 1.75 times when micronutrients were applied. In Madhya Pradesh this resulted in 25% yield increase for soybeans.

4. GIS and satellite imageries helped identify 2 million ha of rainy season fallow land in India.

5. Several million fallow lands were rehabilitated and cultivated adding income and food security of the communities.

6. Introducing appropriate legumes into rice-fallows is likely to have significant impact on the national economies through improved quality of nutrition for humans and animals, poverty alleviation, employment generation, and contribution to the sustainability of these cereal-based production systems in South Asia.

7. ICRISAT’s analysis of fallow-land provided guidance to policy makers and funding agencies in identifying further research areas and to remove various bottlenecks associated with effective and sustainable utilization of rice-fallows in South Asia,

8. The introduction of IPM decreased the cultivation costs through the use of pesticides by up to US$ 66 ha-1. In northeastern Thailand, IPM techniques boosted the farmers’ net profit by 51% in cabbage compared to conventional chemical-based insect management.

9. ICRISAT and partners have proven, together with the local communities that the living conditions of the rural poor can be raised with low-cost interventions. All proof-of-concept watershed sites resulted in impacts that are sustainable and that benefit the whole community.

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References

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Dixit Sreenath, Tewari JC, Wani SP, Vineela C, Chaurasia AK and Panchal HB. 2007. Participatory and conventional biodiversity assessments: Creating awareness for better natural resource management. Annuals of Arid Zone. 46(2).

Dwivedi RS, Ramana KV, Wani.SP and Pathak P. 2003. Use of satellite data for watershed management and impact assessment. Pages 149-157 in Integrated watershed management for land and water conservation and sustainable agricultural production in Asia: Proceedings of the ADB-ICRISAT-IWMI Project Review and Planning Meeting, 10–14 December 2001, Hanoi, Vietnam (Wani SP, Maglinao AR, Ramakrishna A, and Rego TJ, eds.). International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India.

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